Teacher & school Essay Example for Free

Teacher school Essay The positive and negative behaviors exhibited by teachers determine, to a great extent, their effectiveness in the classroom and, ultimately, the impact they have on student achievement. Several specific characteristics of teacher responsibilities and behaviors that contribute directly to effective teaching are listed for each of the following categories: ï‚ · The teacher as a person ï‚ · Classroom management and organization ï‚ · Organizing and orienting for instruction ï‚ · Implementing instruction ï‚ · Monitoring student progress and potential ï‚ · Professionalism Red flags signaling ineffective teaching are presented at the end of each section. Both positive and negative characteristics are based on a plethora of research-based studies that address the concept of improving the educational system for both students and teachers. These qualities are general for any content area or grade level. Subject-specific qualities presented for the four content areas typically found in all schools includ THE TEACHER AS A PERSON. The teacher is the representative of the content and the school. How a teacher presents himself makes an impression on administrators, colleagues, parents, and students. Often a student links the preference to a particular subject to a teacher and the way the subject was taught. A teacher who exudes enthusiasm and competence for a content area may transfer those feelings to the students. In addition, how the teacher relates to the pupils has an impact on the students’ experience in the class. The teacher’s personality is one of the first sets of characteristics to look for in an effective teacher. Many aspects of effective teaching can be cultivated, but it is difficult to effect change in an individual’s personality. A. Positive Qualities  Ã¯â€š · Assumes ownership for the classroom and the students’ success ï‚ · Uses personal experiences as examples in teaching,

Psychometric study of academic self efficacy scale

Psychometric study of academic self efficacy scale The development of Malaysia industries, infrastructures and ensuring the general well being of the country by Malaysian engineers cannot be underestimated. A new of engineering education model have been introduced to develop the interpersonal skills deal with public effectively as well as the technically competent ( Johari, 2002). In order to develop the interpersonal skills among Malaysia future engineers, a research in psychology well being have to be done. A psychometric analysis is most important part to get a valid and reliable psychology research for predicting the interpersonal skills among students. Standardized testing procedures are essential to valid testing. An invalid and misleading of the test result may alter by using of nonstandard procedures (Gregory, 2007). The psychological test is an effective tool in measuring the attitude and mental ability. It assesses their efficiency in acquiring knowledge relevant to the job and putting what they learn to practice. The test measures emotional stability, and skills such as analytical and problem-solving skills, human communication and leadership skills. The standard procedure for measuring beliefs of personal efficacy includes number of safeguards to minimize any potential motivational effects of self-assessment. These safeguards are built into the instructions and the mode of administration. Self-efficacy judgments are recorded privately without personal identification to reduce social evaluative concerns. The assessments of perceived efficacy and behavior are conducted in different settings and by different assessors to remove any possible carryover of social influence from assessment to the performance setting (Bandura, 1984). For example, in this case, The College Academic Self efficacy scale (Owen Froman, 1988) indicates that students perceptions of their abilities to perform tasks, greatly influences their success. The importance of validity and reliable measure of the sources of self-efficacy is needed. First, self-efficacy beliefs play a critical role in the academic and career choices of students (Hackett, 1995). It is important for educators or a counselors to be well known of the factors that help create and nurture the self-efficacy beliefs of their students. This information is invaluable in helping educators tailor their instructional strategies and counseling practices in ways most supportive both of their students self-efficacy and also of their achievement. Educators and counselors can also make use of such assessments as they evaluate the manner in which academic programs and intervention strategies may influence the self-efficacy beliefs of the adolescents in their care. All professional educators would readily agree that identifying the ways in which students unrealistically low self-efficacy beliefs can be challenged and altered is an essential and critical enterprise. Another important reason why a psychometrically sound assessment of the sources of self-efficacy is required is that the tenets of Banduras (1986) social cognitive theory regarding the workings of self-efficacy cannot effectively be tested without such assessment. Researchers who wish to understand the formation of academic self-efficacy must obtain that understanding using valid and reliable measures that faithfully reflect the sources hypothesized and their role within the broader structure of social cognitive theory. This is especially important in the field of academic motivation where the sources of self-efficacy have often been operationalized and measured in a manner that bears little resemblance to how they were hypothesized by Bandura (1986, 1997). This study will be able to craft items to assess each source by matching them carefully to each source as it that has been described by Bandura (1997). The researcher next sought to establish a psychometrically fit model to measure the sources of self-efficacy and to test whether the model is invariant across demographic factors and the correlation with social support. This study will be also examined evidence for convergent and factor analysis by assessing the relationship between the sources, self-efficacy, and other constructs typically included in studies of academic motivation. College Students self-efficacy beliefs have been found to play an important role in motivating them to learn (Pajares Schunk, 2001). Self-efficacy refers to beliefs about ones capability to learn or perform effectively, such as to solve a particular type of math problem. Self-efficacy differs operationally from other self-related constructs in that self-efficacy items are phrased in terms of what students can do rather than what they will do or usually do in a particular domain (Bandura, 2006). An important type of self-efficacy focuses on students beliefs about their capability to self-regulate learning (SRL), which refers to such processes as goal setting, self-monitoring, strategy use, self-evaluation, and self-reactions (Zimmerman, 2007). Research has indicated that self efficacy correlates with achievement outcomes (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 1996; Schunk, 1995). Students with high self efficacy often display greater performance comparatively to those with low efficacy. Self efficacy is also equated with self competence, hence significant authorities such as parents and teachers who exert great influences should play their role efficiently in enhancing this self competence and eventually self efficacy for it has great bearings in achievement, be it in the English language or any other subjects ( Mahyuddin.R, 2006). 1.2 Problem Statement This study concentrates on the psychometric properties and application of the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale and its relationship with social supports and students life satisfaction. Through the haze of available measurements in self efficacy, may of them offering weak or unknown psychometric properties, and unlikely that self-efficacy can penetrate clearly (Owen and Froman, 1988). Items in Self efficacy scale should accurately reflect the construct. Self efficacy is concerned with perceived capability. Self efficacy should also be distinguished from other constructs such as self esteem, locus of control, self regulation and outcome expectancies. Scientific advances are greatly accelerated by methodological development of assessment tools for key determinants of human functioning. Quality of assessment provides the basis for stringent empirical tests of theory. Self efficacy assessment tailored to domains of functioning and task demands identify patterns of strengths and limitations in perceived capability (Bandura, 1997). The academic self efficacy and self efficacy in learning have been widely investigate by western researchers and educators. For Malaysian researcher, the study of academic self efficacy is quite constrictive. There are several significance to investigate the psychometric properties of the academic self efficacy scale that will be discussed in part significance of the study. Researchers have previously investigated predictors affecting students decision to pursue higher education. Predictors include primary and secondary school preparations, family dynamics, self esteem, commitment to goals and social support systems. Yet, with all the services available to students and the research conducted to better understand factor associated with the above issues, there are some students who never successfully assimilate into and navigate through the university system (Shaw, N. E, 2008). Owen and Fromans (1988) College Academic Self-Efficacy Scale was selected for this study because it was different from most academic self-efficacy instruments. CASES was unique in that the instrument investigates feelings of academic self-efficacy as a whole as opposed to teasing out individual constructs or areas of academic self-efficacy such as English, mathematics, and reading. Owen and Froman (1988) also believed that CASES can give specific diagnostic findings that can influence holistic change to increase overall academic self-efficacy. This study is unique because one of its objectives was not to simply find a relationship between self efficacy, academic motivation and academic achievement, but to also explore how the psychometric properties is significance before the researcher conduct a test. The study attempted to focus on the mediating variable that would explain the relationship between self efficacy, academic motivation and academic achievement. 1.3 Research Question The research questions are listed as below; i) Do the ASES scores demonstrate adequate internal consistency reliability, convergent validity and factor analysis of the testing for the college students? ii) Are there significant differences in the level of academic self efficacy experienced by male and female students? iii) Are there significant differences in the level of academic self efficacy experienced by students with the level of parents education and income? iv) Is there a relationship between college academic self-efficacy and social support? v) is there a relationship between academic self efficacy and life satisfaction? 1.4 Research Objectives: i) To examine the psychometric properties of a Academic Self efficacy Scale to estimate the students self-efficacy. ii) To identify the levels of self efficacy among engineering students in tertiary education iii) To identify the relationship of self efficacy with demographic factors. iv) To identify the relationship of academic self efficacy with students social supports. v) To identify the relationship of academic self efficacy with life satisfaction. 1.5 Significance of the study Many studies in educational and psychological literature revealed that measurement of self-efficacy is important in the field of education because of its key role and relationships with many other variables, which have great influences on education. For this reason, self efficacy measurements and the development of an effective measurement tool with respect to psychometric properties have become an important issue and major concern. The educators can nurture student self-direction and personal efficacy by providing students with opportunities before, during and after instruction to exercise some control of their own learning. An emphasis on student self-direction and efficacy means that educators teach and engage students in specific strategies that offer them opportunities to make decisions and solve problems on their own without being told what to do at all times. It means, the educators can provide them with strategies designed to help them process information effectively and to be self-confident, believing that they have the abilities to succeed. And perhaps most important, we help students become more reflective about their thinking and learning processes. The perceived attractiveness of the field of engineering and the attrition of engineering students are important issues that are significantly influenced by self-efficacy beliefs. In order to address these problems, educators must gain a better understanding of how students assess their confidence in their abilities to complete the tasks that they find necessary to succeed in engineering fields with their engineering self-efficacy beliefs (Hutchison, 2007). Self-efficacy can influence peoples behavior either positively or negatively, based on their perception of their abilities concerning a particular task. It influences the choices people make, the effort they put forth, and how long they persist in the face of obstacles and failure. The efficacy beliefs of undergraduate students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) programs have been linked to their persistence, achievement and interest. 1.6 Limitation of the study The psychometric study will only focus on The College Academic Self Efficacy Scale(CASES) which was develop by Owen and Froman (1988). This instrument also will be used to study the level of academic self efficacy among students. The sample only will be focus on engineering undergraduates. This study only will be done in Higher Public universities in term of geographical, cultural and course offered by the universities. 1.7 Definition of the Terms Psychometric Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of educational and psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. The field is primarily concerned with the study of measurement instruments such as questionnaires and tests. It involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the construction of instruments and procedures for measurement; and (ii) the development and refinement of theoretical approaches to measurement. In this study, the psychometric analysis will be involved the reliability and validity analysis. In this research, the psychometric analysis will be involved reliability, convergent validity and confirmatory factor analysis. Academic Self efficacy Academic self-efficacy refers to individuals convictions that they can successfully perform given academic tasks at designated levels (Schunk, 1991). In this study, academic self efficacy will be demonstrated by the College Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES) developed by Owen Froman (1988). College Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES) College Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES) refers to an instruments which was developed by Owen Froman (1988) in order to assess students belief that they can master the material and skills thought in university. The CASES was used in order to measure students levels of perceived academic self-efficacy. The scale contained 33-item with five-point Likert-type instruction to be appended. Social supports Life satisfaction A global assessment of a persons quality of life, dependent on the values and criteria deemed important by the individual (Shin Johnson, 1978). Engineering students Engineering students refers for those whom learned and willing to do the creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property. In this study, engineering students refers to first year students from four selected public universities which includes Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UNIMAP), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia(UTM), Universiti Putra malaysia and Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka. Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction This chapter will review and summarize the model and social cognitive theory and also self efficacy by Bandura (1997). The researcher has also focused on psychometrics analysis such as validity and reliability. The primary goal of understanding how students from engineering self efficacy beliefs, Bandura (1997) self efficacy beliefs, Bandura (1997) self-efficacy theory was selected to guide the research. 2.2 Social cognitive theory The selection of a guiding theoretical construct is directed by the questions a study seeks to answer (Patton,2002). The social cognitive theory aimed to focus attention on the significant role played by observational learning and vicarious reinforcement in human functioning. Bandura (1977) developed his theory to further include the essential component of self beliefs holds as a factor in human behavior. Social cognitive theory holds that human behavior, adaptation and change are based on cognitive, vicarious, self-regularotary and self reflective processes, rather than reactive responses as claimed in behaviorist theories. BEHAVIOR PERSONAL FACTORS ENVIRONMENTAL (Cognitive, affective, and FACTORS biological events) Figure 1.. Model of the relations between the three classes of determinants in Banduras (1986) conception of triadic reciprocality Figure 1 shows the model of the relations between the three classes of determinants in Banduras (1986) conception of triadic reciprocality. People are viewed as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating rather than as reactive organisms shaped and shepherded by environmental forces or driven by concealed inner impulses. From this theoretical perspective, human functioning is viewed as the product of a dynamic interplay of personal, behavioral, and environmental influences. For example, how people interpret the results of their own behavior informs and alters their environments and the personal factors they possess which, in turn, inform and alter subsequent behavior. This is the foundation of Banduras (1986) conception of reciprocal determinism, the view that (a) personal factors in the form of cognition, affect, and biological events, (b) behavior, and (c) environmental influences create interactions that result in a triadic reciprocality. Bandura altered the l abel of his theory from social learning to social cognitive both to distance it from prevalent social learning theories of the day and to emphasize that cognition plays a critical role in peoples capability to construct reality, self-regulate, encode information, and perform behaviors. 2.3 Self Efficacy Beliefs The self-beliefs that individuals use to exercise a measure of control over their environments include self-efficacy beliefs. beliefs in ones capability to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations (Bandura, 1997, p. 2). Self-efficacy beliefs are concerned with individuals perceived capabilities to produce results and to attain designated types of performance, they differ from related conceptions of personal competence that form the core constructs of other theories. Self-efficacy judgments are both more task- and situation-specific, contextual if you will, and individuals make use of these judgments in reference to some type of goal. To better understand the nature of self-efficacy beliefs it may be useful to explain how they are acquired, how they influence motivational and self-regulatory process, and how they differ from similar or related conceptions of self-belief. According to Bandura, there are four major sources of self-efficacy. 1. Mastery Experiences The most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences, Bandura explained (1994). Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy. However, failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-efficacy. 2. Social Modeling Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is another important source of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers beliefs that they too possess the capabilities master comparable activities to succeed (1994). 3. Social Persuasion Bandura also asserted that people could be persuaded to belief that they have the skills and capabilities to succeed. Consider a time when someone said something positive and encouraging that helped you achieve a goal. Getting verbal encouragement from others helps people overcome self-doubt and instead focus on giving their best effort to the task at hand. 4. Psychological Responses Our own responses and emotional reactions to situations also play an important role in self-efficacy. Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels can all impact how a person feels about their personal abilities in a particular situation. A person who becomes extremely nervous before speaking in public may develop a weak sense of self-efficacy in these situations. However, Bandura also notes it is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather how they are perceived and interpreted (1994). By learning how to minimize stress and elevate mood when facing difficult or challenging tasks, people can improve their sense of self-efficacy. Bandura (1986) considered self-reflection the most uniquely human capability, for through this form of self-referent thought people evaluate and alter their own thinking and behavior. These self-evaluations include perceptions of self-efficacy, that is, beliefs in ones capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations. These beliefs of personal competence affect behavior in several ways. They influence the choices individuals make and the courses of action they pursue. People engage in tasks in which they feel competent and confident and avoid those in which they do not. Efficacy beliefs help determine how much effort people will expend on an activity, how long they will persevere when confronting obstacles, and how resilient they will prove in the face of adverse situations-the higher the sense of efficacy, the greater the effort, persistence, and resilience. Efficacy beliefs also influence individuals thought patterns and emotional reactions. People with low self-efficacy may believe that things are tougher than they really are, a belief that fosters stress, depression, and a narrow vision of how best to solve a problem. High self-efficacy, on the other hand, helps to create feelings of serenity in approaching difficult tasks and activities. As a result of these influences, self-efficacy beliefs are strong determinants and predictors of the level of accomplishment that individuals finally attain. For these reasons, Bandura (in press) argued that beliefs of personal efficacy constitute the key factor of human agency . 2.4 Engineering Self Efficacy Numerous studies examining the role of self efficacy in students pursuit of engineering careers have generally found a positive correlation between self-efficacy and academic achievement in engineering disciplines (AWE, 2005). For example, it has been found that ones self-efficacy beliefs influence on effort, persistence, and perseverance in goal attainment (Bandura Schunk, 1981; Bouffard-Bouchard, 1990; Schunk Hanson, 1985). Similar findings reveal that high self-efficacy beliefs influence the academic persistence necessary to maintain high academic achievement amongst college students enrolled in science and engineering courses (Lent, Brown, Larkin, 1984, 1986). Previous research also has clearly made the case that the construct of engineering self efficacy can be an important contributor to success in science, technology, engineering or mathematics (STEM) career education by influencing the choice to pursue STEM careers and the persistence with which it is pursued. Hutchison et al (2006) have done a survey incorporating qualitative measures of student self-efficacy beliefs to administer 1,387 first-year engineering students enrolled in ENGR 106, Engineering Problem-Solving and Computer Tools, at Purdue University. The survey was designed to identify factors related to students self-efficacy beliefs, their beliefs about their capabilities to perform the tasks necessary to achieve a desired outcome. Open-ended questions prompted students to list factors affecting their confidence in their ability to succeed in the course. Students were then asked to rank these factors based on the degree to which their self-efficacy beliefs were influenced. Gender trends emerged in student responses to factors that affect confident in success. These trends are discussed in light of the categories identified by efficacy theorists as sources of self-efficacy beliefs. The results presented here provide a useful look at the first-year engineering experiences that inf luence students efficacy beliefs, an important consideration in explaining student achievement, persistence, and interest. 2.5 Academic self efficacy Bandura (1997) believed that self-efficacy contributes to the academic achievement of students. Bandura proposed that individuals make a cognitive judgment about their mastery of present situations in view of their past experiences, and proceed to carry out the necessary behaviors to accomplish the task at hand. Students are affected by personal (e.g., goal setting, information processing) and situational influences (e.g., rewards, teacher feedback) that provide students with cues about how well they are learning. Self-efficacy is enhanced when students perceive they are performing well or becoming more skillful. Lack of success or slow progress will not necessarily lower self-efficacy if learners believe they can perform better by expending more effort or using more effective strategies (Schunk, 1995). Schunk (1991) in his study has also proposed that self-efficacy is critical to the academic achievement of adolescents. He hypothesized that self-efficacy influences a students choice of activities. Students with a high level of self-efficacy will select more challenging learning tasks, therefore expending more persistence and effort to obtain higher achievement outcomes, whereas students with low level of self-efficacy will avoid difficult and challenging tasks that require more effort and persistence, and thus, obtain lower achievement outcomes. Figure 1 The Development of Academic Self Efficacy ( Adapted from Schunk and Pajares, 2001) Familial Influence on Self-Efficacy Peer Influence Role of Schooling Transitional Influences Developmental Changes in Self-Appraisal Skill Gender Differences Ethnic Differences ACADEMIC SELF EFFICACY Students with higher self-efficacy expend greater effort, exhibit more persistence and demonstrate greater resilience in the face of adverse situations. As a result of these influences, self-efficacy beliefs are strong determinants of the level of accomplishment (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 1996), and therefore contribute tremendously to intellectual development which leads to academic success (Bandura, 1995). In addition, the research literature includes several studies which emphasize the effect of self-efficacy on numerous positive outcomes as well as academic achievement. In this case, not only has self-efficacy been found to positively relate to higher levels of achievement, but also it has a strong association with a variety of adaptive academic 30 outcomes such as higher levels of effort and increased persistence on difficult tasks. This finding has been confirmed across a number of experimental and correlational studies involving students of different ages (Bandura, 1997; Pintrich Schunk, 2002). Also, in a correlational study conducted by Linnenbrink and Pintrich (2002), was found that self- efficacy is positively related to student cognitive engagement and their use of self- regulatory strategies as well as general achievement as indexed by grades (Pintrich, 2000b; Pintrich De Groot, 1990; Wolters, Yu, Pintrich, 1996). Lastly, further evidence exists in the research literature that confirms Schunks hypothesis that students who have positive self-efficacy beliefs are more likely to choose to continue to take more difficult courses over the course of schooling (Eccles et al., 1998). Although several studies confirm the positive effect of self-efficacy on academic achievement, there also seems to be a number of other mediating influences or related variables that provide further explanation of this relationship. In view of possible mediating influences, there exist contradictions in the literature regarding the exact nature of the relationship of self-efficacy with other related variables (e.g., goal orientation, motivation) in explaining positive academic outcomes, as well as its precise strength in predicting academic achievement, irrespective of these variables. Such discrepancies in the research literature should be considered in examining the effect of self-efficacy on academic achievement. The finding that self-efficacy beliefs tend to decline as students advance through school (Pintrich Schunk, 1996) has been attributed to various factors, including greater competition, more norm-referenced grading, less teacher attention to individual student progress, a nd stresses associated with school transitions. These and other school practices can weaken academic self efficacy, especially among students who are less academically prepared to cope with increasingly challenging academic tasks. Lock-step sequences of instruction frustrate some students who fail to grasp skills and increasingly fall behind their peers (Bandura, 1997). Ability groupings can lower self-efficacy among those relegated to lower groups. Classrooms that allow for much social comparison tend to lower the self-efficacy of students who find their performances inferior to those of their peers. Students involvement and participation in school depend in part on how much the school environment contributes to their perceptions of autonomy and relatedness, which in turn influence self-efficacy and academic achievement. Although parents and teachers contribute to feeling of autonomy and relatedness, peers become highly significant during adolescence. The peer group context enhances or diminishes students feelings of belonging and affiliation (Hymel, Comfort, Schonert-Reichl, McDougall, 1996). 2.6 Social support College students may seek social and emotional support from their family and friends. Social support, or receiving emotional, informational, and/or tangible support from other individuals (Lazarus Folkman, 1984), has been linked positively with the maintenance of physical health during stressful situations. In addition, the perceived availability of social support, rather than the actual use of social support, may actually be more important in protecting individuals from the harmful effects of stressful situations (Holahan Moos, 1987). Further, social support may be an important component of college students transitioning successfully to the college environment (Hays Oxley, 1986) and college students academic achievement (DeBerard et al., 2004), with low levels of social support being related to a lack of persistence in academic endeavors (Mallinckrodt, 1988). Given these findings, it is possible that support from family and friends is extremely important in the lives of college students during their college careers, particularly as they experience and make attempts to cope with academic-related stress. For example, one study using a sample of first- and second-year college students, most of whom were without daily parental contact, showed that parental support predicted significantly the grade point average (GPA) of these students. In contrast, support from friends and romantic partners did not predict GPA significantly (Cutrona et al., 1994). These results indicated that, although parents may be removed physically from college students daily life, they still may have a major impact on college students academic performance. As a result, the perceived level of emotional support from college students parents may be related greatly to many aspects of their college career, including their academic performance and their experience of academic- related stress. 2.6.1 Parental support Seminal attachment theories developed by Bowlby (1969) and Ainsworth and

Asynchronous JavaScript and XML (AJAX)

Asynchronous JavaScript and XML (AJAX) Anjan Thapaliya Abstract AJAX stands for Asynchronous JavaScript and XML. It is a web technology that evolved in early 2000 and uses a mix of technology like JavaScript and XML. This paper discusses about how AJAX technology works in modern web application and various advantages and disadvantages. This paper also discusses about various frameworks available for AJAX that can be used on different platforms. History In the past, when there was no such thing as AJAX, the websites needed to reload each and every time for retrieving even small bits of information from the server or processing a tiniest client request, which made the webpages very inefficient. Every time there is a page refresh, it put consumed some bandwidth and put some load on the request processing server. In order to overcome this cycle of request-response, and fetch required data from the server without having to make a round trip, Microsoft came up with iframe technology is as early as 1999 but it was clunky and not efficient. The core of today’s AJAX technology, known as XMLHTTP object was first implemented by Microsoft Outlook in 1999. The term â€Å"AJAX itself was first used my Jesse James in one of his articles in 2005 to talk about this new technology. W3C came up with its first round of documentation for the XMLHttpRequest and called it a web standard in 2006. Classic web application vs. Ajax web application AJAX has transformed how people view at webpages from a simple HTML document into a dynamic web application. The early web sites rendered the webpage as a plain HTML pages. It lacked features like dynamic updates and synchronization with services and servers. The web server in classic web applications performed all the serving up responses to requests with each round trip. Due to this overhead of constant server round trips, web sites in the early 2000 performed poorly and were not as dynamic in terms of updates and synchronization. On the contrary, AJAX based web sites perform better in terms of faster rendering and quicker updates. Not all the data processing is done on the sever side, as a connection is silently made to the server in the background which responds back by giving back the required data in some format like XML or JSON. The resulted data is then formatted using XSLT or CSS in the client side for a better rendering of the view. The diagram below shows how websites in the past differ from modern web sites that make use of AJAX technology: (Ajax: A New Approach to Web Applications, J. Garrett, 2005) What is AJAX? AJAX is a modern web technology that leverages a bunch of existing web technologies to create faster and more efficient web applications. AJAX frees web sites from the need to post the whole webpage back to the server for small piece of information and lets pages or parts of a page update by receiving small chunks of data from the server magically behind the scene – without users barely noticing the page refresh. This is what is referred to when people talk about the â€Å"Asynchronous† behavior of AJAX. In a tradition sense, a classic web site always has to have an event send some kind of request to the server which will then result a response being sent back to the client from the server. That usually means, only one request can be responded at a time and any subsequent request have to wait until the previous requests have been processed by the server. When a user clicks on a button, that will trigger some kind of event resulting in either post or get request to the s erver, which will need to be processed by the server first and then the right view is served up to the user. Now this can happen behind the scene without the browser needing to do a complete post back to the server. The advantage of asynchronous call is that data can still be requested from a server without a complete post back to the server and all happens behind the scene and the user is barely affected by what is going on behind the scene. Instead of having to wait for the response result, pages or even parts of a page load asynchronously. What make up AJAX? AJAX is not a new programming language, nor is it just one new technology. It is rather a mix of existing technologies. The following make up the AJAX: JavaScript: It is a client side scripting language interpreted by browsers. JavaScript is one of the most important components of AJAX technologies. It is responsible for capturing user events and making a call to the server asynchronously for the needed data. Today, there are many JavaScript libraries like jQuery that have simplified how AJAX calls are made and in what format are the response data received. Since the advent of JSON, the response of an AJAX call doesn’t just have to be in XML format, but it can also be in JSON format. DOM: DOM stands for Document Object Model, which means it is a JavaScript Object model of an HTML document or XML document. It is the way JavaScript sees its content and structure. It is an object that includes how the HTML/XHTML/XML is formatted, as well as the overall state of the browser. CSS: CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheet and is used to present data or document in a certain style. It is the language to decorate the content, essentially separating the style from the actual content. XMLHttpRequest: XMLHttpRequest is probably one of the most powerful JavaScript Objects that has properties and methods to really change the overall architecture of today’s modern web application. It was designed by Microsoft and are now widely being adopted and by IT giants like Google, Mozilla, and Apple etc. This JavaScript provides an easy mechanism to fetch data from a URL without having to do a complete post back to the server over either http or ftp protocols. A web page can have a part of it doing something dynamically through the use of this object while the user is doing something else without really affecting user’s interaction with the page in any manner. XMLHttpRequest object has various properties and methods to open, close or cancel connection to a server and fetch data or send status of current request whether it is a success or failure etc. Below are some of the important properties and methods commonly used in AJAX based web applications. XMLHttpRequest object has following six methods abort (): This methods basically cancels an asynchronous call being made to a server. getAllResponseHeaders (): This methods returns all headers information as a string. getResponseHeader (header): It returns string containing header information or null if there is no header in the response at all or response is not sent out yet. open (method, url): This method is used to initiate a request call to a server. send (body): This method is used to send a browser request to the server, irrespective of whether it is synchronous or not. setRequestHeader (header, value): This method is used to set the HTTP request header to a certain value. There are six important properties of the XMLHttpRequest object: onreadystatechange: This property determines which callback function to call when the readyState property changes readyState: It is the current status of XMLHttpRequest object and can have any possible values from 0 to 4, where each values have a certain meaning. 0: The request has not been initialized. 1: The AJAX call has established connection to the server. 2: request received: The AJAX call request has been received by the server. 3: The AJAX call request is being processed. 4: The AJAX call request has completed and the response is ready. responseText: It returns a string which contains the body of the response responseXML: It retrieves the response body as XML DOM Object. status: Indicates what the current HTTP status code is like 200 for OK and 404 for server not found etc. statusText: It retrieves a friendly HTTP status of an AJAX request. Ajax Event life cycle The below diagram show the lifecycle of AJAX events in a web application (AJAX Asynchronous JavaScript and XML, Saikrishna, 2009): When a user visits an AJAX web site, the engine is first loaded and initialized before any AJAX related operation. The Ajax engine basically works around the two processes shown in cyan boxes in the above picture. The lifecycle of an AJAX operation is as follows: A user requests a webpage with AJAX implementation in his/h. Page is loaded in computer browser. User interacts with the site and creates an event, like a button or a link clicking. The click event initiates the AJAX call, and sends a data request to the server and also specifies how the needed data should be returned back, either as XML or JSON etc. The server resolves and processes the request and also prepares the response data in the required format. Server responds to the client browser with the requested data. A callback function gets the data, and transforms and updates the web page. This happens all behind the scene and user will never have to see his/her page post back to the server like the regular web pages do. Ajax Frameworks Like any other web application framework, people have developed various frameworks around AJAX so that an these frameworks can be used on a specific platform, with a specific language etc. and basically provides API for developers to easily make use of AJAX technologies in more efficient and abstracted manner. These frameworks have unique components to accept request or process request using AJAX and are adapted to a particular language platform like ASP.NET or PHP etc. There are many AJAX frameworks for different platforms and languages. Some of the notable AJAX frameworks are listed below: For .NET web applications: ASP.NET Ajax Framework Web.Ajax For PHP web applications: Tigermouse Zephyr Pherry For Java web applications: Salto Ajax Buffalo Ajax Apache Wicket For JavaScript based web applications: jQuery Prototype Atom.js etc. Real World Usage of AJAX: Live searches: It is an important feature in modern search engines made possible by AJAX. Users don’t have to type the whole thing and autocomplete kicks in as soon as few letters are typed in and the expected results show up instantly as we start entering the term we are looking for. When we visit the large search engine sites like Google or Bing and search for anything, then we get the autocompleting service as well as list of matching results instantaneously instead of having to wait for the server to process and send back the results. In the below figure, while searching for Chicago Airport, the auto-completion kicks in and the user can see a list of his/her choices. Real time messaging and chat with Ajax: Ajax updates social media pages like Facebook and twitter pages without refreshing the page which helps user see updates and communicate with people real time. Chat web applications like meebo use AJAX extensively to enhance the chat experience. Drag and drop: One of the important features of Ajax is that it lets users drag and drop files and plugins on a webpage and such drag/drop events are automatically persisted to the server. This can be seen in cloud storage sites like dropbox or onedrive. Instant login feedback: When user enters the wrong login credentials, then the login failure response is instantaneous, instead of having for the page to post back to the server and the failed response to come back to the user. Real world Users of AJAX There are many web sites and applications that use AJAX nowadays. The most prominent and early adopters are sites like YouTube, Google maps, Gmail, Facebook etc. Facebook seems to have great implementation of AJAX as the posts and updates are show almost instantaneously and doesn’t need any page refresh. AJAX implementation in Facebook site is what does the trick in instant updates of user status, messages etc. A Google map is one of the oldest and the most popular AJAX based web application. The Google map fetches XML data of the places a user is looking for and transforms the received data into complex map imagery. Users can drag locations around or zoom in and out and the page doesn’t have to reload to reflect the new changes. Gmail also uses AJAX for variety of useful features like spell check, auto save incomplete as drafts, fetching new emails etc. Flickr uses AJAX in its site for loading pictures in a picture carousel manner where when a user clicks for next pict ure, there is no page refresh, the click of the next button simply fetches the next pictures and presents the user with the next picture – which makes perfect sense because there is not really a need to refresh the whole site to just to retrieve one photo in a current sequence of photos. Advantages and disadvantages AJAX has become a vital aspect of modern web application. AJAX has many advantages but it does also have some disadvantages. Here are some advantages and disadvantages of AJAX: Advantages: AJAX helps lessen the round trips between the client and the server. A site’s overall response time will be a lot faster. Open source JavaScript libraries like JQuery, Prototype, etc. for development Disadvantages: AJAX is an extra abstraction layer and will complicate design and development Security is a concern since files are downloaded client side. AJAX based web pages are not indexed for search. Browsers with JavaScript turned off won’t be able to render AJAX web sites. Summary Ajax is a great technology and should be used when sites have a lot of plugins on a page and each need to refresh dynamically. AJAX makes a site more dynamic and performance is improved significantly as it cuts down on the number of post backs the page has to go through. It is also important to know that AJAX has its own advantages and disadvantages. It is important to distinguish which web applications require AJAX and which ones can do without it. Very simple web pages with very little data interactivity can probably do away with AJAX. Developers should always focus on the requirements of the site and wisely if AJAX is necessary or not to match the requirement. References Saikrishna. (2012, June 9).AJAX Asynchronous JavaScript and XML. RetrievedJuly20, 2014, from http://wegonemad.blogspot.com/2012/06/ajax.html Advantages of using Ajax in your website | BounceWeb Web Hosting Blog. (n.d.). Retrieved from  http://blog.bounceweb.com/advantages-of-using-ajax-in-your-website/ Ajax: A New Approach to Web Applications | Adaptive Path. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.adaptivepath.com/ideas/ajax-new-approach-web-applications/ Ajax History Information. (n.d.). Retrieved from  http://www.xmluk.org/ajax-history-and-information.htm Ajax pros and cons. (n.d.). Retrieved from  http://www.jscripters.com/ajax-disadvantages-and-advantages/ Codeproject. (). What is AJAX? Retrieved from  http://www.codeproject.com/Articles/534632/WhatplusisplusAJAX-3f Getting Started AJAX | MDN. (n.d.). Retrieved from  https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/AJAX/Getting_Started The characteristics of Ajax Applications. (n. d). Retrieved from http://www.openajax.org/member/wiki/images/8/89/NexawebAjaxCharacteristics.pdf

Innocence Lost in The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas :: John Boyne, The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas

The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas is based on John Boyne's book of the same name, which I'd read a few years ago. The cover of the book gave away little of the plot, allowing the reader to discover just what it was about while they were reading it. For instance, I don't think it's ever directly mentioned that the book is set in World War II and that the father of central character Bruno is a Nazi. That gradual unveiling of the plot can't be done in the film - as soon as we see the swastikas in the first frame of the film, and catch a glimpse of Bruno's dad (Thewlis) we know exactly what he is. And we also know the significance of the striped pyjamas worn by the old man who peels potatoes in the kitchen. The story starts with eight-year-old Bruno (Butterfield) annoyed to discover his father has been given a new posting, to a house in the country. He misses his friends until he spots what he believes is a farm through the woods in the backyard. But it's an odd farm, the people all wear those striped pyjamas. Thinking there might be some children to play with Bruno asks his mother (Farmiga) if he can go and have a look. She immediately tells him he is not to leave the yard. But curiosity gets the better of him and he sneaks out through the woods to the edge of the "farm", which is surrounded by an electric fence. Sitting on the other side is another eight-year-old, Shmuel (brilliantly played by Scanlon). The pair get talking and, soon enough, Bruno becomes a regular visitor to the fence. Until that heartbreaking conclusion. The film is largely told from the perspective of Bruno and Shmuel, neither of whom comprehend the true nature of the farm. Indeed, neither understand much of what is happening in Germany at the time. His parents, who most definitely do know what's going on, steer Bruno away from the ugly truth of the "farm" in their backyard. This provides an interesting insight. The father in particular fully supports the persecution of the Jews - to him it is a normal part of life - yet prefers to change the subject rather than offering his son an explanation. It makes you wonder if it's because there's still some small part of him that doubts his actions. Also interesting is the attitude of Bruno's mother when she sees smoke from the camp's chimneys and discovers what they're actually burning.

Light and Darkness in Antigone and the Gospel of John of the Holy Bible

Light and Darkness Found in Antigone and the Gospel of John As a child, my world was enraptured by the wonderful Fisher-Price toy known as the Lite-Brite. By inserting multicolored little pegs into their corresponding slots on a detailed guide, I could transform drab, dull, and dark pieces of paper into wondrous works of brilliant art. The light that filled and transformed the plastic pegs closely parallel concepts of light and darkness found within the Gospel of John and in Sophocles' drama Antigone. The Gospel of John focuses on the profound meaning of the life of Jesus, whom he saw as the manifestation of God's Word (logos). Teiresias, of Sophocles' play Antigone, is a blind prophet whose lack of vision does not prevent him from recognizing the truth. The words of John and the characterization of Sophocles, although similar in many aspects, differ in the extent to which their concepts of light and darkness affect humanity. Sophocles' light, in the form of Teiresias, allows truth to permeate throughout one's lifetime. John's light, as the manifesta tion ofthe logos, presents truth and enlightenment to humanity, but also ensures a glorified and joyous afterlife through Christ's salvation. Teiresias, the voice of fate and harbinger of truth in Sophocles' play Antigone, humbly enters the drama by addressing the malevolent Creon and stating that he "must walk by another's steps and see with another's eyes" (Antigone, 102). The wise prophet was metaphorically declaring that he delivered the message of a higher truth. This truth existed as Natural Law. Teiresias advised his m... ...light, only the Gospel of John carries the secret to eternal salvation. In a way similar to a child playing with a Lite- Brite, the Gospel of John and Sophocles' character Teiresias allow rainbows of light to exist in a world devoid of color. While both allow the existence of a form of the truth, it is only the Gospel of John that provides a detailed guide that will allow a person to find order in their truth. Through such truth and enlightenment, an abstract world of chaos and ignorance can be engulfed by a world full of order and wisdom. Realms of beauty and glory can manifest themselves to individuals who accept the truth and the essence of light as a message from a higher existence. Great joy and pleasure shall come to the child who can find beauty and order in a bleak world full of ignorance and emptiness. Light and Darkness in Antigone and the Gospel of John of the Holy Bible Light and Darkness Found in Antigone and the Gospel of John As a child, my world was enraptured by the wonderful Fisher-Price toy known as the Lite-Brite. By inserting multicolored little pegs into their corresponding slots on a detailed guide, I could transform drab, dull, and dark pieces of paper into wondrous works of brilliant art. The light that filled and transformed the plastic pegs closely parallel concepts of light and darkness found within the Gospel of John and in Sophocles' drama Antigone. The Gospel of John focuses on the profound meaning of the life of Jesus, whom he saw as the manifestation of God's Word (logos). Teiresias, of Sophocles' play Antigone, is a blind prophet whose lack of vision does not prevent him from recognizing the truth. The words of John and the characterization of Sophocles, although similar in many aspects, differ in the extent to which their concepts of light and darkness affect humanity. Sophocles' light, in the form of Teiresias, allows truth to permeate throughout one's lifetime. John's light, as the manifesta tion ofthe logos, presents truth and enlightenment to humanity, but also ensures a glorified and joyous afterlife through Christ's salvation. Teiresias, the voice of fate and harbinger of truth in Sophocles' play Antigone, humbly enters the drama by addressing the malevolent Creon and stating that he "must walk by another's steps and see with another's eyes" (Antigone, 102). The wise prophet was metaphorically declaring that he delivered the message of a higher truth. This truth existed as Natural Law. Teiresias advised his m... ...light, only the Gospel of John carries the secret to eternal salvation. In a way similar to a child playing with a Lite- Brite, the Gospel of John and Sophocles' character Teiresias allow rainbows of light to exist in a world devoid of color. While both allow the existence of a form of the truth, it is only the Gospel of John that provides a detailed guide that will allow a person to find order in their truth. Through such truth and enlightenment, an abstract world of chaos and ignorance can be engulfed by a world full of order and wisdom. Realms of beauty and glory can manifest themselves to individuals who accept the truth and the essence of light as a message from a higher existence. Great joy and pleasure shall come to the child who can find beauty and order in a bleak world full of ignorance and emptiness.

Life and career Essay

Singer’s parents were Viennese Jews who escaped the German annexation of Austria and fled to Australia in 1938. His grandparents were less fortunate; they were taken by the Nazis to Lodz, and were never heard of again. [1] Singer’s father imported tea and coffee, while his mother practised medicine. He attended Scotch College. After leaving school, Singer studied law, history and philosophy at the University of Melbourne, gaining his degree in 1967. He received an MA for a thesis entitled Why should I be moral? n 1969. He was awarded a scholarship to study at the University of Oxford, obtaining a B. Phil in 1971 with a thesis on civil disobedience, supervised by R. M. Hare, and subsequently published as a book in 1973. [2] After spending two years as a Radcliffe lecturer at University College, Oxford, he was visiting professor at New York University for 16 months. He returned to Melbourne in 1977, where he has spent most of his career, apart from many visiting positions internationally, and until his move to Princeton in 1999. Animal LiberationPublished in 1975, Animal Liberation[3] was a major formative influence on the animal liberation movement. Although Singer rejects rights as a moral ideal independent from his utilitarianism based on interests, he accepts rights as derived from utilitarian principles, particularly the principle of minimizing suffering. [4] Singer allows that animal rights are not exactly the same as human rights, writing in Animal Liberation that â€Å"there are obviously important differences between human and other animals, and these differences must give rise to some differences in the rights that each have. [5] So, for example an animal does not have the right to a good education as this is meaningless to him, just as a male human does not have the right to an abortion. But he is no more skeptical of animal rights than of the rights of women, beginning his book by defending just such a comparison against Mary Wollstonecraft’s 18th-century critic Thomas Taylor, who argued that if Wollstonecraft’s reasoning in defense of women’s rights were correct, then â€Å"brutes† would have rights too. Taylor thought he had produced a reductio ad absurdum of Wollstonecraft’s view; Singer regards it as a sound logical implication. Taylor’s modus tollens is Singer’s modus ponens. In Animal Liberation, Singer argues against what he calls speciesism: discrimination on the grounds that a being belongs to a certain species. He holds the interests of all beings capable of suffering to be worthy of equal consideration, and that giving lesser consideration to beings based on their having wings or fur is no more justified than discrimination based on skin color. In particular, he argues that while animals show lower intelligence than the average human, many severely retarded humans show equally diminished mental capacity, and intelligence therefore does not provide a basis for providing nonhuman animals any less consideration than such retarded humans. Singer does not specifically contend that we ought not use animals for food insofar as they are raised and killed in a way that actively avoids the inflicting of pain, but as such farms are few and far between, he concludes that the most practical solution is to adopt a vegetarian or vegan diet. Singer also condemns most vivisection, though he believes animal experiments may be acceptable if the benefit (in terms of improved medical treatment, etc. ) outweighs the harm done to the animals used. [6] Due to the subjectivity of the term â€Å"benefit†, controversy exists about this and other utilitarian views. But he is clear enough that humans of comparable sentience should also be candidates for any animal experimentation that passes the benefit test. So a monkey and a human infant would be equally available for the experiment, from a moral point of view, other things being equal. If performing the experiment on the infant isn’t justifiable, then Singer believes that the experiment shouldn’t happen at all — instead, the researchers should pursue their goals using computer simulations or other methods. Applied ethics His most comprehensive work, Practical Ethics,[7] analyzes in detail why and how beings’ interests should be weighed. His principle of equality encompasses all beings with interests, and it requires equal consideration of those interests, whatever the species. The principle of equal consideration of interests does not dictate equal treatment of all those with interests, since different interests warrant different treatment. All have an interest in avoiding pain, for instance, but relatively few have an interest in cultivating their abilities. Not only does his principle justify different treatment for different interests, but it allows different treatment for the same interest when diminishing marginal utility is a factor, favoring, for instance, a starving person’s interest in food over the same interest of someone who is only slightly hungry. Among the more important human interests are those in avoiding pain, in developing one’s abilities, in satisfying basic needs for food and shelter, in enjoying warm personal relationships, in being free to pursue one’s projects without interference, â€Å"and many others†. The fundamental interest that entitles a being to equal consideration is the capacity for â€Å"suffering and/or enjoyment or happiness†; mice as well as human beings have this interest, but stones and trees do not. He holds that a being’s interests should always be weighed according to that being’s concrete properties, and not according to its belonging to some abstract group such as a species, or a set of possible beings, or an early stage of something with an as yet unactualized potential. He favors a ‘journey’ model of life, which measures the wrongness of taking a life by the degree to which doing so frustrates a life journey’s goals. So taking a life is less wrong at the beginning, when no goals have been set, and at the end, when the goals have either been met or are unlikely to be accomplished. The journey model is tolerant of some frustrated desire, explains why persons who have embarked on their journeys are not replaceable, and accounts for why it is wrong to bring a miserable life into existence. Although sentience puts a being within the sphere of equal consideration of interests, only a personal interest in continuing to live brings the journey model into play. This model also explains the priority that Singer attaches to interests over trivial desires and pleasures. For instance, one has an interest in food, but not in the pleasures of the palate that might distinguish eating steak from eating tofu, because nutrition is instrumental to many goals in one’s life journey, whereas the desire for meat is not and is therefore trumped by the interest of animals in avoiding the miseries of factory farming. In order to avoid bias towards human interests, he requires the idea of an impartial standpoint from which to compare interests. This is an elaboration of the familiar idea of putting oneself in the other’s shoes, adjusted for beings with paws or flippers. He has wavered about whether the precise aim is the total amount of satisfied interests, or instead the most satisfied interests among those beings who already exist prior to the decision one is making. Both have liabilities. The total view, for instance, seems to lead to Derek Parfit’s Repugnant Conclusion[8] — that is, it seems to imply that it’s morally better to have an enormous population with lives barely worth living rather than a smaller population with much happier lives. The prior-existence view, on the other hand, seems questionably indifferent to the harm or benefit one can do to those who are brought into existence by one’s decisions. The second edition of Practical Ethics disavows the first edition’s suggestion that the total and prior-existence views should be combined in such a way that the total view applies to sentient beings who are not self-conscious and the prior-existence view applies to those who are. This would mean that rats and human infants are replaceable — their painless death is permissible as long as they are replaced — whereas human adults and other persons in Singer’s expanded sense, including great apes, are not replaceable. The second edition dispenses with the requirement of replacement and the consequent high population numbers for sentient beings. It asserts that preference-satisfaction utilitarianism, incorporating the ‘journey’ model, applies without invoking the first edition’s suggestion about the total view. But the details are fuzzy and Singer admits that he is â€Å"not entirely satisfied† with his treatment of choices that involve bringing beings into existence. Ethical conduct is justifiable by reasons that go beyond prudence to â€Å"something bigger than the individual,† addressing a larger audience. Singer thinks this going-beyond identifies moral reasons as â€Å"somehow universal†, specifically in the injunction to ‘love thy neighbor as thyself’, interpreted by him as demanding that one give the same weight to the interests of others as one gives to one’s own interests. This universalizing step, which Singer traces from Kant to Hare, is crucial and sets him apart from moral theorists from Hobbes to David Gauthier, who regard that step as flatly irrational. Universalization leads directly to utilitarianism, Singer argues, on the strength of the thought that my own interests cannot count for more than the interests of others. Taking these into account, one must weigh them up and adopt the course of action that is most likely to maximize the interests of those affected; utilitarianism has been arrived at. Singer’s universalizing step applies to interests without reference to who has them, whereas a Kantian’s applies to the judgments of rational agents (in Kant’s kingdom of ends, or Rawls’s Original Position, etc. ). Singer regards Kantian universalization as unjust to animals. It’s their capacity for suffering/happiness that matters morally, not their deficiency with respect to rational judgment. As for the Hobbesians, Singer attempts a response in the final chapter of Practical Ethics, arguing that self-interested reasons support adoption of the moral point of view, such as ‘the paradox of hedonism’, which counsels that happiness is best found by not looking for it, and the need most people feel to relate to something larger than their own concerns. Abortion, euthanasia and infanticide Consistent with his general ethical theory, Singer holds that the right to physical integrity is grounded in a being’s ability to suffer, and the right to life is grounded in, among other things, the ability to plan and anticipate one’s future. Since the unborn, infants and severely disabled people lack the latter (but not the former) ability, he states that abortion, painless infanticide and euthanasia can be justified in certain special circumstances, for instance in the case of severely disabled infants whose life would cause suffering both to themselves and to their parents. In his view the central argument against abortion is It is wrong to kill an innocent human being; a human fetus is an innocent human being; therefore it is wrong to kill a human fetus. He challenges the second premise, on the grounds that its reference to human beings is ambiguous as between human beings in the zoological sense and persons as rational and self-conscious. There is no sanctity of human life that confers moral protection on human beings in the zoological sense. Until the capacity for pain develops after â€Å"18 weeks of gestation†, abortion terminates an existence that has no intrinsic value (as opposed to the value it might have in virtue of being valued by the parents or others). As it develops the features of a person, it has moral protections that are comparable to those that should be extended to nonhuman life as well. He also rejects a backup argument against abortion that appeals to potential: It is wrong to kill a potential human being; a human fetus is a potential human being; therefore it is wrong to kill a human fetus. The second premise is more plausible, but its first premise is less plausible, and Singer denies that what is potentially an X should have the same value or moral rights as what is already an X. Against those who stress the continuity of our existence from conception to adulthood, he poses the example of an embryo in a dish on a laboratory bench, which he calls Mary. Now if it divides into two identical embryos, there is no way to answer the question whether Mary dies, or continues to exist, or is replaced by Jane and Susan. These are absurd questions, he thinks, and their absurdity casts doubt on the view that the embryo is a human being in the morally significant sense. Singer classifies euthanasia as voluntary, involuntary, or non-voluntary. (For possible similar historical definitions of euthanasia see Karl Binding, Alfred Hoche and Werner Catel. ) Given his consequentialist approach, the difference between active and passive euthanasia is not morally significant, for the required act/omission doctrine is untenable; killing and letting die are on a moral par when their consequences are the same. Voluntary euthanasia, undertaken with the consent of the subject, is supported by the autonomy of persons and their freedom to waive their rights, especially against a legal background such as the guidelines developed by the courts in the Netherlands. Non-voluntary euthanasia at the beginning or end of life’s journey, when the capacity to reason about what is at stake is undeveloped or lost, is justified when swift and painless killing is the only alternative to suffering for the subject.

Residential School System

NATI 3116EL – Aboriginal People and the Criminal Justice System Final Research Paper Residential School System & Intergenerational Impact The purpose of residential schooling was to assimilate Aboriginal children into mainstream Canadian society by disconnecting them from their families and communities and severing all ties with languages, customs and beliefs (Chansoneuve, 2005).The following paper with depict the history behind residential schools, the varying schools across Canada, the intergenerational impact and influence the residential school system had issues such as alcoholism, family violence, substance abuse, lack of education, the increasing crime rate and the role of the Criminal Justice System in Canada. In addition to, what the government has accomplished in terms of compensation for the suffering that occurred.The Aboriginal Healing Foundation defines residential schools as being industrial schools, boarding schools, homes for students, hostels, billets, residen tial schools, residential schools with a majority of day students, or a combination of any of the above by which attended by Aboriginal students (Chansoneuve, 2005). Children were taken away from their families and reserves and put in these schools whereby they were taught shame and rejection for everything about their heritage, including their ancestors, families, languages, beliefs and cultural traditions.Many of these students were not only disconnected from their families but also sexually and physically abused and often by multiple authoritative figures and many for a long duration of their stay. The Aboriginal Healing foundation classified the cultural disconnection, cultural shame and trauma as a cultural genocide. The unresolved trauma and exploitation that occurred in these schools has now directly contributed to the problems that Aboriginal people face today.In 1845 the Canadian government proposed a report to the legislative assembly of Upper Canada that recommended that boarding schools be set up to educate Indian children across Canada (Chansoneuve, 2005). The superintendent of Indian affairs agreed but also suggested that there be a partnership between the government and the church to create a schooling system of a religious nature. However, it was not until 1863 that the first Roman Catholic residential school were to be established at St. Mary’s Mission in British Columbia by Oblate Father Florimond Gendre.In 1879 Nicholas Flood Davin was sent to the United States by Prime Minister John A. Macdonald to investigate and report on Indian industrial training schools. Within his report he recommended that funding off-reserve boarding schools to teach children the skills needed in the modern Canadian economy and the government to therefore consider boarding schools rather than day schools. He classified them as residential schools, and deemed them to be more successful because they could completely remove the children from their â€Å"evil su rroundings† (Barnes, Cole & Josefowitz, 2006).From then on until 1969, the partnership between the government of Canada and the churches continued in all provinces except New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island. Conversely, the last residential school in Canada did not close until 1996, and it was not until then that the government of Canada assumed all responsibility for the schools and the intergenerational trauma they produced. The aggressive assimilation of the residential schools would remove Aboriginal children from their homes because the government felt that children were easier to mould and prepare for mainstream society than adults.In 1920, Canada amended the Indian Act, making it obligatory for Aboriginal parents to send their children between the ages of seven and fifteen years who is physically able to Indian residential schools (Joseph, 2002). Attendance was mandatory and by 1931 80 schools were in operation across Canada and about 150,000 Aboriginal , Inuit, and Metis children had been removed from their communities and forced to reject and disconnect from their heritage (CBC News, June 14, 2010).Overall 130 schools were established across the country between the 19th century until 1996, where native children were discouraged from speaking their first language and practicing their native traditions and if caught would experience severe punishment (CBC News, June 14, 2010). The cultural racism of the Residential School era resulted in the legacy of cultural harm, which is the breakdown of the spiritual, moral, physical, and emotional health and fabric of Indigenous people (Fontaine, 2002).Not only was there a negative intergenerational impact on Aboriginal peoples but also in the early 1900’s the death rate of Indigenous children at these schools was a high seventy five percent (Fontaine, 2002). Many Aboriginal therapists and frontline workers describe the abuse that took place within the residential schools as ritualized abuse such as repeated, systematic, sadistic and humiliating trauma to the physical, spiritual and/or emotional health of a person that may utilize techniques such as conditioning, mind control, degradation, omnipotence and torture (Chansonneuve, 2005).In addition to the contemporary trauma caused by ritualized abuse, Indigenous children suffered sexual and physical abuse. Many survivors as high as 50% of them, do not remember the abuse until years after it has occurred and something in adulthood triggers the memory. The constant abuse and dehumanizing Aboriginal people faced has lead to several negative impacts in the present time.Many suffer from alcohol and substance abuse, sexual and physical abuse at home or within the community, poverty, discrimination and in some instances Indigenous people who have been affected by the residential schools have committed suicide. Psychological and emotional abuses were constant: shaming by public beatings of naked children, vilification of n ative culture, constant racism, public strip and genital searches, withholding presents and letters from family, locking children in closets and cages, segregation of sexes, separation of brothers and sisters, proscription of native languages and spirituality. Schissel & Wotherspoon, 2003). In addition, the schools were places of severe physical and sexual violence such as sexual assaults, forced abortions of staff-impregnated girls, needles were inserted into the tongue for speaking a native language, burning, scalding, beating until unconsciousness and/or inflicting permanent injury (Schissel & Wotherspoon, 2003).Children attending residential schools across Canada also endured electrical shock, force-feeding of their own vomit when they were sick, exposure to freezing outside temperatures, withholding of medical attention when needed, shaved heads which was classified as a cultural and social violation, starvation as a punishment, forced labour in unsafe work situations, intentio nal contamination with diseased blankets, insufficient food for basic nutrition and/or spoiled food.Reports have estimated that as many as 60% of the students died as a result of illness, beatings, attempts to escape, or suicide while in the schools (Joseph, 2002). According to Edwards et al two thirds of the last generation to attend residential schools has not survived because many fell victim to violence, accidents, addictions and suicide (Edwards, Smith & Varcoe, 2005). Today the children and grandchildren of those who attended residential schools live with the same legacy of broken families, lost culture and broken spirit because of the discrimination and trauma they are faced with every day.Many families have become caught in the downward spiral of addiction, violence and poverty. Several individuals have described leaving home as a preteen or teenager to escape the chaos and interpersonal violence in their family, home and community. Several individuals have had to drop out o f school to look for work, whereby they only find unskilled or seasonal jobs and inadequate housing (Edwards et al, 2005).Nowadays many aboriginal parents who suffered from the residential schools have a hard time being interested in their children’s education because of the violence and abuse that had taken place but also the poor curriculum they were taught (Barnes, Cole, & Josefowitz, 2006). A positive relationship between families and schools is now understood to support the growth and development of students academically, behaviourally and socially (Barnes et al, 2006).Therefore, aboriginal students are at an increased risk for academic, behavioural and social difficulties because of the degradation their families and communities faced. Without the proper support and understanding of Aboriginal children’s needs when dealing with their education, the downward spiral of poverty, inadequate housing, unemployment, substance and alcohol abuse and overrepresentation in the criminal justice system continues to affect Aboriginal people.One main similarity between the residential school system and our current system and our society today is the unremitting discrimination towards Aboriginal people. The truancy and dropout rate for Aboriginal students is high because early school leaving is commonly associated with a long process of student disengagement associated with unfavourable school experiences (Barnes et al, 2006).The residential school system stands as a reminder of the long-term impacts of school policy, funding, staffing and staff training on students’ education and later life prospects because without adequate resources the intergenerational impacts of residential schools will continue to have negative effects on Aboriginal families and communities (Barnes et al, 2006). The intergenerational impacts of the residential school system such as alcoholism, poverty and violence has lead to an overrepresentation of Aboriginal people in the criminal justice system.Resources are needed in communities to cope with addictions, domestic violence, but also crime prevention measures must be taken to eliminate and reduce poverty and other causes of crime. It has been acknowledged that the legacy of discrimination towards Aboriginal peoples is one of the reasons they are overrepresented in the system and therefore the courts must address this issue when dealing with sentencing. The Gladue decision is an important turning point in the criminal justice system when dealing with Aboriginal offenders.Healing is an Aboriginal justice principle that is slowly becoming a part of the justice system through the practice of circle sentencing and community based diversion programs. The Gladue case has provided the notion that every judge must take into consideration the healing principle when dealing with Aboriginal offenders, in order to build a bridge between his or her unique personal and community background experiences and criminal j ustice. Many Aboriginal offenders are survivors of the residential schools or have been influenced by the trauma caused to their family members or community.The government of Canada imposed section 718. 2 of the Criminal Code of Canada to help sentence Aboriginal offenders because of the harm that they have faced in relation to offenders of other ethnicities. Section 718. 2 is as follows: A court that imposes a sentence shall also take into consideration the following principles: (e) all available sanctions other than imprisonment that are reasonable in the circumstances should be considered for all offenders, with particular attention to the circumstances of Aboriginal offenders. Many of he offences that are committed by Aboriginal peoples today are non-violent offences such as property crime and substance related offences. When dealing with Aboriginal offenders and sentencing judges must take into consideration the history, culture and experiences of discrimination that Indigenous people in Canada have faced, more time must be spent on the sentencing process to ensure a more restorative approach to better heal and rehabilitate the offender and the community and alternatives to incarceration must be taken into consideration to help the offender, victim, families and communities heal (McCaslin, 2005).On the other hand, the criminal justice system personnel have also begun to recognize the number of Aboriginal offenders who suffer from FASD and how the â€Å"mentally disordered offender† with FASD creates particular problems for the assumption by the legal system of innocence until proven guilty. For example offenders may plead guilty as a part of a plea bargaining however they do not understand that they legal process or do not feel as though did committed an illegal offence.Therefore the mens rea is not present if the offender genuinely felt as though they did nothing wrong because they could not understand the consequences due to a mental illness. The Canadian government has taken responsibility for the systematic discrimination that took place within the residential schools and the trauma and intergenerational impacts that has occurred. In 2007, the federal government formalized a $1. 9-billion compensation package for those who were forced to attend residential schools (CBC News, June 14, 2010).Common Experience Payments were made available to all residential schools students who were alive as of May 30, 2005. Former students were eligible for $10,000 for the first year or part of a year they attended school, plus $3,000 for each subsequent year (CBC News, June 14, 2010). Remaining money from the $1. 9-billion compensation package was to be given to foundations that support learning needs of current Aboriginal students.As of April 15, 2010 a reported $1. 55 billion had been paid which represented 75,800 cases in Canada (CBC News, June 14, 2010). Other than compensation apologies were made through the Catholic Church which over saw three-quarters of Canadian residential schools. Appologies were also made by the Canadian government, Pope Benedict XVI, Archbishop Michael Peers on behalf of the Anglican Church, the Presbyterian Church and the United Church of Canada.In conclusion, no matter how much compensation is paid or however many apologies are made it does not make up for the trauma, suffering, and systematic discrimination that Aboriginal people have faced because of the residential schools which has lead to alcoholism and substance abuse, poverty, inadequate housing, inadequate education and unemployment and this disconnection with their culture and community. References Barnes, R. (2006).Residential Schools: Impact on Aboriginal Student’s Academic and Cognitive Development. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 21 (1/2), 18-32. * An academic article that describes the affects of poor curriculum, lack of resources, lack parental involvement in education, and discrimination within the residenti al schools system. Bracken, D. C. (2008). Canada’s Aboriginal People, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome & the Criminal Justice System. British Journal of Community Justice, 21-33. An academic article that describes the relationship between FASD, Aboriginal offenders and the Criminal Justice System in Canada and how it may lead to and effect guilty pleas CBC News (2010, June, 14). A History of Residential Schools in Canada. CBC News Canada. Retrieved from: http://www. cbc. ca/news/canada/story/2008/05/16/f-faqs-residential-schools. html * Depicts the history of residential schools in Canada and the steps Canada has taken to heal the relationship between the government and Aboriginal people.Chansonneuve, D. (2005). Reclaiming Connections: Understanding Residential School Trauma Among Aboriginal People. Ottawa: Aboriginal Healing Foundation. * Provides a timeline as to when the first residential school was established comparative to the last and the harm that occurred within the schools. E dwards, N. , Smith, D. , & Varcoe, C. (2005). Turning Around the Intergenerational Impact of Residential Schools on Aboriginal People: Implications for Health Policy and Practice. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 37 (4), 38-60. An academic journal that acknowledges the intergenerational impacts that the residential school system has produced in terms of health effects and abuse. Fontaine, L. S. (2002). Canadian Residential Schools: The Legacy of Cultural Harm. Indigenous Law Bulletin, 5 (17), 4. * An article that goes through the history of the Canadian residential schools and the cultural harm that was produced in terms of first, second and third generational impacts. Joseph, R. (2002, March). Indian Residential School Survivors Society. Retrieved from: http://www. irsss. a/index-new. html * A website that goes over the history of residential schools and the current resources provided for the survivors of the systematic discrimination and abuse. LaPrarie, C. (1990). The Role o f Sentencing in the Over-representation of Aboriginal People in Correctional Institutions. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 32, 429-440. * An academic journal which goes through the reasonings behind overrepresentation of Aboriginal peoples in the criminal justice system in relation to the influence of residential schools and an increased crime rate.McCaslin, W. (2005) Justice as Healing: Indigenous Ways. Canada: Living Justice Press * Reading on pages 280-296 which deals with restorative justice and the sentencing of Aboriginal offenders in relation to the Gladue case. Schissel, B. & Wotherspoon, T. (2003). The Legacy of School for Aboriginal People: Education, Oppression & Emancipation. Canada: Oxford University Press * A book about the negative influences of residential schools and the determinants of successful schooling. Also